Essay on the Development of Sociology in Turkey: From the Ottoman
Empire to the Republic
The development of sociology in Turkey is deeply intertwined with the
country’s historical, cultural, and intellectual transformations. From the
late Ottoman period, which laid the foundation for sociological thinking, to
the establishment of the Republic and its modernizing efforts, sociology in
Turkey has evolved through various stages, heavily influenced by Western
intellectual currents while attempting to address local realities.
1. The Ottoman Period and the Foundations of Sociology
The roots of sociology in Turkey can be traced back to the late Ottoman
period, particularly during the Tanzimat and Islahat reforms of the 19th
century. Westernization efforts introduced new ways of thinking and
scientific inquiry, which laid the groundwork for modern sociological
thought.
Western Influence: Western intellectual movements such as positivism,
materialism, and rationalism had a significant impact on Ottoman
intellectuals. Figures like Hoca Tahsin promoted rationalism, emphasizing
the importance of reason in understanding the world. His positivist
approach sought to align Ottoman thought with Western scientific
methods, though it remained largely confined to the intellectual elite.
Beşir Fuad: Fuad embraced positivism in literature and philosophy,
advocating for a more scientific approach to the arts. However, his ideas
clashed with the deeply entrenched conservative values of Ottoman
society. Despite these challenges, Fuad’s efforts represented a significant
step in bringing Western intellectual currents to the Ottoman Empire.
The Westernization attempts of the Ottoman Empire were largely top-
down, limited to elites and not deeply integrated into society. These
efforts, although groundbreaking, did not initiate a widespread
transformation at the societal level.
2. The Republican Era: Institutionalization and Western Influence
With the founding of the Turkish Republic in 1923, the institutionalization
of sociology began. Sociology became a key tool in the modernization and
nation-building processes, drawing on Western ideas while attempting to
adapt them to the Turkish context.
Ziya Gökalp’s Influence: One of the most significant figures in Turkish
sociology was Ziya Gökalp, who is often considered the founding father of
Turkish sociology. Gökalp grounded Turkism in sociological thought and
emphasized modernization through his famous dictum: "Türkleşmek,
İslamlaşmak, Muasırlaşmak" (To become Turkish, to become Islamic, to
become modern). His work attempted to reconcile Western ideas of
modernity with Turkish nationalism, offering a theoretical basis for
sociological studies in the Republic.
Prens Sabahattin: In contrast to Gökalp, Prens Sabahattin advocated for
individualism and decentralization. Influenced by Western liberal ideas, he
promoted a form of sociology that emphasized personal freedoms and a
reduction in state intervention. Sabahattin’s ideas contributed to the
intellectual diversity of the era, offering an alternative to the more
nationalist vision of sociology.
During the early Republican period, sociology in Turkey became deeply
connected to the modernization and Westernization efforts. However,
these intellectual currents remained largely the domain of an educated
elite, often disconnected from the broader public.
3. The 1950s-1960s: The Influence of American Sociology
The 1950s and 1960s marked a new phase in the development of
sociology in Turkey, as the country’s alignment with the West increased
following WWII. During this period, American sociology, particularly
functionalism, had a significant influence on Turkish sociological thought.
Functionalism and Village Sociology: Turkish sociologists began to adopt
functionalist perspectives, with studies on village life and social change
gaining prominence. Sociologists like Cahit Tanyol focused on rural
transformations, analyzing villages through the lens of ownership
structures and societal roles. This period saw the emergence of a more
empirical, data-driven approach to sociology, which was heavily influenced
by American thought.
Migration and Urbanization: Another key theme during this period was the
migration from rural to urban areas. Sociologists examined how the
transformation of Turkey’s agrarian economy impacted urbanization and
the emergence of new social dynamics in cities.
Although these developments brought sociological thought closer to
Western standards, they often neglected the specific social and cultural
conditions of Turkey. The focus on rural and urban migration, for example,
did not fully account for the unique political and cultural challenges of
Turkish society.
4. The 1960s-1980s: Political and Social Upheavals
The 1960s to the 1980s were a time of political instability in Turkey,
marked by military coups, political unrest, and social polarization. These
upheavals significantly impacted the focus and direction of sociological
studies.
Political Disruptions: The 1960 coup, followed by the 1971 and 1980
military interventions, led to an increased focus on social inequalities and
class struggles. Sociology during this period became more politicized, with
a greater emphasis on socialism and addressing the needs of the working
class.
Gecekondu and Urban Poverty: The rapid urbanization of Turkey during this
period, particularly the growth of informal settlements known as
gecekondu, prompted sociologists to examine issues of urban poverty and
inequality. Studies of migration to urban areas became more focused on
the social problems created by rapid industrialization and the lack of
adequate infrastructure.
Socialism and Social Justice: The rise of socialist ideologies during this time
influenced sociological research, with an increasing focus on social justice,
class struggle, and the need for structural change in Turkish society.
This period marked a shift in sociology from a more technocratic,
functionalist approach to a more critical, politically engaged discipline.
Sociologists began to question the existing social order and advocate for
more profound transformations in Turkish society.
5. General Evaluation: The Evolution of Sociology in Turkey
The development of sociology in Turkey reflects the country’s complex
interaction with Western thought and its efforts to adapt these ideas to
local realities. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, Turkish sociologists
have grappled with the tension between Western theories and the specific
socio-cultural and political conditions of Turkey.
Western Influence: The influence of Western intellectual movements has
been a constant in Turkish sociology, from the positivism of the Ottoman
period to the functionalism and Marxism of the Republican era. However,
this influence has often been adapted to fit the Turkish context, creating a
unique synthesis of Western and local intellectual traditions.
Modernization and Westernization: Sociology in Turkey has often been
closely tied to the processes of modernization and Westernization.
However, this connection has been more complex than mere imitation.
Sociologists have sought to address local needs and conditions while
incorporating Western ideas.
Local Adaptations: From the early 20th century onwards, there has been a
growing emphasis on studying Turkey’s unique social structures,
particularly issues like rural-urban migration, urbanization, and class
inequality. These studies have moved beyond the adoption of Western
theories to develop more localized approaches to social analysis.
In conclusion, the development of sociology in Turkey has been shaped by
the interaction between Western intellectual currents and local socio-
political realities. While Western theories have played a significant role,
Turkish sociologists have increasingly sought to adapt these ideas to better
understand and address the specific challenges faced by Turkish society.
This process of synthesis continues to define the evolution of sociology in
Turkey, as it strives to reconcile modernity with tradition, and the global
with the local.
The development of sociology in Turkey is deeply intertwined with the
country’s historical, cultural, and intellectual transformations. From the
late Ottoman period, which laid the foundation for sociological thinking, to
the establishment of the Republic and its modernizing efforts, sociology in
Turkey has evolved through various stages, heavily influenced by Western
intellectual currents while attempting to address local realities.
In the late Ottoman period, particularly during the Tanzimat and Islahat
reforms of the 19th century, Westernization efforts introduced new ways of
thinking and scientific inquiry. Intellectuals such as Hoca Tahsin promoted
rationalism and positivism, aligning Ottoman thought with Western
scientific methods. However, these efforts largely remained confined to
the intellectual elite, and widespread societal transformation was not
achieved. Figures like Beşir Fuad embraced positivism, advocating for a
more scientific approach to literature and philosophy, but his ideas clashed
with the deeply entrenched conservative values of Ottoman society.
With the founding of the Turkish Republic in 1923, sociology began to
institutionalize as a tool in the modernization and nation-building
processes. Ziya Gökalp, often considered the founding father of Turkish
sociology, played a pivotal role by grounding Turkism in sociological
thought and emphasizing modernization. His famous dictum, "Türkleşmek,
İslamlaşmak, Muasırlaşmak" (To become Turkish, to become Islamic, to
become modern), sought to reconcile Western modernity with Turkish
nationalism. In contrast, Prens Sabahattin advocated for individualism and
decentralization, promoting a more liberal sociology that focused on
personal freedoms and reducing state intervention.
The 1950s and 1960s marked a shift as American sociology, particularly
functionalism, gained influence in Turkey. Sociologists like Cahit Tanyol
examined rural transformations through a functionalist lens, focusing on
ownership structures and societal roles. This period saw a more empirical,
data-driven approach to sociology, with a strong emphasis on rural-urban
migration and its effects on social dynamics. However, the focus on
migration and urbanization often neglected the unique political and
cultural conditions of Turkey, as it sought to mirror Western approaches
without fully accounting for local realities.
The 1960s to the 1980s were a time of political instability in Turkey,
marked by military coups and political unrest. This period saw a
politicization of sociology, with a greater focus on social inequalities and
class struggles. The rapid urbanization of Turkey led to the growth of
informal settlements, or gecekondu, prompting sociologists to examine
issues of urban poverty and inequality. The rise of socialist ideologies
during this time influenced sociological research, emphasizing social
justice and the need for structural change in Turkish society. This marked a
shift from a more technocratic approach to a more critical, politically
engaged sociology.
In general, the evolution of sociology in Turkey reflects the ongoing tension
between Western intellectual traditions and the country's local socio-
cultural and political realities. While Western influences have shaped
Turkish sociology, these ideas have often been adapted to better
understand and address Turkey’s unique challenges. Sociologists in Turkey
have focused on local issues such as rural-urban migration, class
inequality, and urbanization, developing more localized approaches to
social analysis. This process of synthesizing Western ideas with Turkish
realities continues to define the development of sociology in Turkey today.
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Türkiye'de sosyolojinin gelişimi, Batı'dan gelen etkiler ve yerel toplumsal
yapının özelliklerinin birleştiği karmaşık bir süreçtir. Erken dönemde, Ziya
Gökalp'in Durkheimci sosyolojisi, Türkiye'nin sosyolojik temelini
oluşturmuş, toplumsal yapılar ve kolektif bilinç gibi kavramları ön plana
çıkarmıştır. Ayrıca, Prens Sabahattin'in Le Play okuluna dayanan sosyolojik
yaklaşımı, daha çok uygulamalı bir yön benimsemiş ve toplumsal yapıları
anlamada pratik bir bakış açısı sunmuştur. Bu dönemde milliyetçilik ve
Türkçülük temaları, Batı'nın sosyolojik etkileriyle birleşerek, yerel toplumsal
ihtiyaçlarla uyumlu bir düşünsel temel oluşturmuştur.
II. Dünya Savaşı sonrasında Türkiye’deki sosyal ve politik değişiklikler,
sosyolojinin gelişiminde önemli bir dönüm noktası teşkil etmiştir. 1950'ler
ve sonrasında, çok partili sisteme geçiş, demokratikleşme süreçleri ve
kırsal-şehir göçleri gibi dinamikler, Türk toplumunun sosyal yapısını
değiştirmiştir. Göç olgusu, büyük şehirlerde gecekondu bölgelerinin ortaya
çıkmasına yol açmış ve bu durum, gecekondu sosyolojisi üzerine yapılan
araştırmaların artmasına neden olmuştur. Behice Boran ve Niyazi Berkes
gibi sosyologlar, kırsaldan kente göçün sosyal yapılar üzerindeki etkilerini
incelemiş, bu sürecin toplumsal dönüşüm üzerindeki etkilerine dikkat
çekmişlerdir.
1950'lerin sonlarından itibaren, Türk sosyolojisi Batılı yaklaşımlar, özellikle
Marxist ve Weberci sosyolojiyi benimsemeye başlamıştır. Şerif Mardin ve
Sabri Ülgener gibi önemli sosyologlar, dinin toplum üzerindeki etkilerini ve
toplumsal yapıların birbirleriyle olan ilişkilerini araştırmışlardır. Mardin'in
"Merkez-Çevre" ve "Mahalle Baskısı" kavramları, Türk toplumunun
modernleşme sürecinde dini yapıların rolünü anlamada önemli bir yer
tutmuş ve Batı’dan gelen modernleşme teorilerinin Türkiye’ye
uyarlanmasına büyük katkı sağlamıştır.
Sosyolojik çalışmalarda, özellikle Mübeccel Kıray'ın "tampon kurumlar"
kavramı önemli bir yer tutar. Kıray, kırsal alanlardaki toplumsal
değişimlerin şehirlerdeki sosyo-ekonomik yapıları nasıl dönüştürdüğünü
inceleyerek, kırsal-şehir geçişinin ekonomik ve sosyal etkilerini ortaya
koymuştur. Ereğli ve Çukurova’daki tarım üzerine yaptığı çalışmalar,
köylerin modernleşme süreçlerini ve sanayileşme etkilerini ele alarak,
Türkiye'nin kırsal yapısından kentsel yapısına geçişi anlamamıza yardımcı
olmuştur.
Günümüzde ise Türkiye’de sosyoloji, göç, kentleşme, aile yapıları ve
toplumsal cinsiyet gibi güncel konuları ele alarak evrimleşmeye devam
etmektedir. Kıray ve Mardin gibi akademisyenlerin izlediği yoldan giderek,
postmodern eleştiriler ve yapısal işlevcilik gibi yeni teorik yaklaşımlar da
sosyolojik düşünceye dahil edilmiştir. Özellikle kırsal alandan kentsel alana
göç, kadınların iş gücüne katılımını artırmış ve toplumsal cinsiyet
ilişkilerinde önemli dönüşümlere yol açmıştır. Bu değişim, Mardin ve
Kıray’ın çalışmalarında geniş bir şekilde ele alınmıştır.
Sonuç olarak, Türkiye'de sosyolojinin gelişimi, Batı'dan alınan teorik
etkilerle birlikte yerel toplumsal dinamiklerin şekillendirdiği bir süreçtir.
Sosyologlar, toplumsal yapı, kültür ve modernleşme arasındaki ilişkileri
inceleyerek, Türk toplumunun tarihsel dönüşümünü anlamada önemli bir
rol oynamışlardır. Şerif Mardin ve Mübeccel Kıray gibi sosyologların
çalışmaları, Türkiye'nin toplumsal yapısının dinamiklerini anlamada temel
taşları oluşturmuştur.
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